The Biblical Allusions of Billy Budd
by Robert W. Watson
(19 February 2000)

Herman Melville's Billy Budd is a thought-provoking tale that explores the limits of goodness and injustice. Even though the execution of Seaman Budd appears unjust, the reader cannot dismiss easily the logic of Captain Vere's argument that military officers and enlisted men have an allegiance to the demands of the central government, and not to conscience. This is why it is not unthinkable that American soldiers would harass, arrest, and even kill American citizens if they are ordered to do so.

Unfortunately, members of any modern armed force are not really patriots, but are mercenaries, who are used as a protection agency for the regime against citizens and as a club against foreign governments. When a military is composed of soldiers who endeavour to wait out their enlistment so that they can cash in on their "benefits," it is impossible to win a war. Like Seaman Budd, the modern warrior is used by the State and sacrificed whenever necessary as an acceptable loss. Regarding naval service, Melville is correct when he states that strict discipline is necessary onboard warships, because martial law not only prepares the crew for conflict and survival, but also quells the rebellious heart of most men. But this is true only if the military is used for defence. If the central regime, like Great Britian in this case, is set upon world conquest in order to reconstruct other peoples into the image of the conquerors, martial law becomes a tool for oppression, and not for discipline. Being a soldier in a defence force is one thing; being an agent to bring death and destruction to others purely for political and economic reasons is another.

Seaman Budd then is sacrificed in the name of law and order, which serve the ends of the State and ignore the greater issues of truth and justice. In writing Billy Budd, Melville must have been familiar with the Celtic Apollo (as Matthew Arnold calls the diety) whose name was Beli and Budd. This diety was sacrificed during times of war as sort of an insurance policy. Also, since Melville refers to the old Danish sailor as "an old Merlin," this Celtic theme is more than just suggested. However, Melville uses the Celtic allusions to establish a superstitious atmosphere. And of course, this superstition derides Biblical truth.

While he is quick to point out that the fall of Adam is "a doctrine now popularly ignored" and that the doctrine "little will commend [the Bible] to many a reader of today," Melville nevertheless agrees that man has an "original constitution" that appears as "frank manifestations in accordance with natural law." While trying to explain why men (but certainly not all men) are wicked, Melville appeals to psychology and ignores the Bible. Indeed, to learn why wickedness exists in some men, Melville states that "one must turn to some authority not liable to the charge of being tinctured with the biblical element," that is, the fall of man. Yet oddly, even though he believes the Bible to be unreliable regarding depravity, Melville uses many poignant allusions from the Bible in order to describe the nature of the three central characters in his novel.

Regarding Billy Budd, Melville describes the Handsome Sailor as though he were Adam. Melville writes, "Billy in many respects was little more than a sort of upright barbarian, much such perhaps as Adam presumably might have been ere the urbane Serpent wriggled himself into his company." Billy possesses a masculine beauty, a brute strength, and a superior code of morals above his shipmates. The allusion makes the reader reflect upon the creation of Adam who was perfect in body, mind, and spirit. However, in like manner, both men failed in their perfection when tested. Billy's one slight flaw is apparent whenever the Handsome Sailor became excited; Billy is unable to speak without stuttering. In addition to this, whenever provoked, Billy is unable to control his anger. When confronted with obeying the will of a greater authority, both Adam and Billy Budd fell, bringing death to themselves.

Regarding John Claggart, Melville describes the master-at-arms as though he were the serpent. Even though Melville attempts to explain the inherent wickedness in Claggart as "a depravity according to nature," he must return to Biblical language. Melville anticipates some readers' objections when he states, "Dark sayings are these, some will say. But why? Is it because they somewhat savor of Holy Writ in its phrase 'mystery of iniquity'?" This mystery of iniquity is connected with the serpent and the anti-Christ. Like the serpent, Claggart is ruled by envy, which in the case of the master-at-arms is directed towards Billy Budd, the fair, outstanding, nearly perfect man. The serpent is a liar; Claggart is a liar. Indeed, when Claggart falls dead due to Billy's striking him, Captain Vere realizes that the petty officer was killed because of his lying about Billy. The captain exclaims, "'It is the divine judgment on Ananias! Look!'" Another parallel that is hard to miss is that as the serpent's head will be bruised one day, so Claggart dies of a blow to the head.

Regarding Captain Vere, Melville describes the captain as though he were Abraham. After the conviction of Billy Budd, Captain Vere insists that he deliver the verdict to Billy himself. Melville speaks about the captain: "He was old enough to have been Billy's father. The austere devotee of military duty, letting himself melt back into what remains primeval in our formalized humanity, may in the end have caught Billy to his heart, even as Abraham may have caught young Isaac on the brink of resolutely offering him up in obedience to the exacting behest." Captain Vere knew naval law. The law required Billy's death for the young seaman's rash action. Like Abraham, Captain Vere obediently follows the will of a higher authority and offers Billy as a sacrifice. The Mutiny Act demanded the death of the offender. The captain was obliged to carry out that will. However, unlike Abraham, Captain Vere has no hope that Billy will enjoy a resurrection like Isaac. While God can restore life, the laws under the Mutiny Act, like war, can only destroy life.

Even though disparaging the Bible on the one hand, Melville elicits the help of the Scriptures on the other to add depth to the characters of Billy Budd, John Claggart, and Captain Vere. The demarcation of good and evil is clearly drawn in the novel. So it is with the Bible. Like the serpent and the second Adam, John Claggart represents all that is evil in man, and Billy represents all that is good. Apparently, Melville believed that whoever wrote the words of "Holy Writ," the author had at least a very good understanding of the nature of mankind.